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Response to Migrant Concerns

Trends in International Migration of Asians

International migrations within Asia and from this region to the West dates back many centuries and so is not of recent origin. Compared to the 20th century, the difference lies in the volume and composition of the migrants. The systems of labour migration which developed with the expansion of western influence in the 19th century took many thousands of Chinese, Japanese and Koreans to North and South America and Australia as well as to Southeast Asia. It was the increasing restrictive immigration policies which slowed down migration of Asians to these areas.¹

More recent events such as the political upheavals and changes in the Philippines, Korea and Taiwan, the Gulf Crisis/ the impending takeover of Hong Kong by China in 1997, the June 4 incident in China, the military crackdown on student uprisings in Burma and Thailand, have all had a major influence in the push for emigration. Any political turmoil and change in the region and in the world affects the pace, composition, direction of regional and international migration flows, and also changes in migration policies both in the countries of origin and destination.

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¹ Ronald Skeldon, University of Hong Kong, gives a good background to international migration in his article, "International Migration Within and From the East and Southeast Asian Region: A Review Essay," Asian & Pacific Migration Journal, Vol.1 No.1, 1992, Philippines, 19-22

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Further, it is evident from the history of migration that there is also a relationship between international migration and economic development at the national, regional and global levels. Thus, it is important to note that migration policies have been worked into development policies of developed and most developing countries.

For the purpose of easy reference, we shall use the following list of widely accepted typologies of migrants, cited by R. T. Appleyard of the Centre for Migration and Development Studies, University of Western Australia: ²

- permanent (settler) immigrants (including persons admitted under family reunion);

- contract workers (normally semi- or unskilled workers who enter a country for a finite period);

- professional transients (also normally temporary and comprising professional and highly skilled workers who move from one country to another often as employees of international companies);

- clandestine or illegal migrants (who generally work in jobs that indigenous workers avoid);

- asylum seekers (who cross borders and appeal for status on political and/or economic grounds); and

- refugees.

One category not mentioned by Appleyard but noted by Ronald Skeldon of the University of Hong Kong is 'students'. It is necessary to consider them because the number who choose to remain in the destination country as settlers after completing their studies is substantial. For example, about 6,000 students from South Korea became permanent residents in the United States during the 1970s. This figure represented about one-quarter

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² R. T. Appleyard, "Migration and Development: A Critical Relationship," Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol.1 No.l, 1992, Philippines, p.8. Ronald Skeldon provides another set of five different types of migration systems in his article cited above. They are: the settler migration system; the student migration system; the contract labor migration system; the skilled labour migration system; and the refugee movements. However, he cautions the careful use of typologies since they become invalidated with time.

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of the total number of Korean students who went to the us during that period.³ By now, the figures have probably doubled. In the light of responding to migrant issues, students are also one important category to consider.

Ronald Skeldon also points out the increasing difficulty in distinguishing between a 'refugee' and an 'economic migrant' because of changes in the nature of asylum seekers themselves and in shifts in international perceptions as to who refugees are. ⁴

However, it is necessary to point out that the refugee situation is often caused by persecution, conflict, natural disasters and a combination of population growth, economic stagnation, ecological deterioration, arms trade, militarism and intolerance.

In the last couple of years, there has been manifold increase in the population of cross border and internal refugees throughout the world. The Asia-Pacific region has also had its share of increase. Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Burma and Sri Lanka are the hotspots in the region in dealing with cross border refugees. Their numbers are estimated to be: ⁵

- 6 million Afghan refugees, hosted by Pakistan and Iran;

- 345,000 Cambodians on the Thai border;

- 230,000 Sri Lankans;

- 100,000 Tibetans;

- 75,000 Bangladeshis;

- 150,000 Burmese on Thai border;

- 100,000 Burmese (Muslims) in Bangladesh;

- 9,000 Vietnamese in closed camps of Hong Kong.

According to the World Refugee Survey (WRS), an estimated 20 million people have been displaced within the borders of their own countries as a result of growing ethnic, religious, racial tensions and conflicts resulting in civil wars and internal strife. Their survey in 1991 showed that there are one million internally

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³ Skeldon, op. cit., 35

⁴ Ibid., 25

⁵ Paper on "Refugee and Migrant Service: Need For An Asian Response" presented to CCA General Committee, July 1992.

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displaced people in Sri Lanka, mostly Tamils who have been forced to flee their homes because of fighting between government security forces and militants. In India during 1990, over 3/000 people were killed and thousands forced to flee because of fighting between security forces and the Sikhs and Muslims in Punjab and Kashmir. In the Philippines, some 100,000 persons were displaced as a result of the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. In Burma, large numbers of people were forced to leave their homes in Rangoon between 1988 to 1990 and resettled in undeveloped areas outside the city. Their number was estimated at 500,000. The numbers for both cross border refugees and internally displaced people continue to increase because of wars, ethnic conflicts, death squads and persecution. In 1990, there were one million more refugees than there were in 1989 and in 1991, there were two million more than in 1990.

International migration within Asia consists mainly of labor migration of contract workers, illegal migrants, and professional transients. Whereas international migration from Asia to developed countries such as Canada, USA, Australia, Aotearoa/New Zealand, Great Britain and Europe are made up predominantly of permanent (settler) immigrants, professional transients, students, asylum seekers and refugees.

While the decision for migration may lie solely with the individual, it is the government policies of receiving countries which determine the volume and composition of international migration. This means that only those persons who are able to contribute to the receiving countries' objectives for socio-economic development will be permitted entry. One effect of this policy is that those who do not 'qualify' will resort to illegal entry out of desperation for a better quality of life. Thus both legal and illegal migration is affected by the role of governments of receiving countries.

R. T. Appleyard suggests that "annual intakes and other variables depend largely upon the receiving country's stages of 'modernization'." ⁷ He posits that emigration would be high during

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⁶ Ibid., 6

⁷ Appleyard, op. cit., 7.

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early stages of modernization when low per capita income and opportunities push many persons to leave for another country which is at a higher stage of modernization. However, as the country of origin proceeds through modernization, the volume of emigration declines because per capita income has increased thus reducing the pressure to emigrate. Basically, this means that only small numbers of immigrants are accepted at early stages of modernization but their numbers increase during the middle stages and can be quite high at advanced stages.

This pattern seems to be true in the case of Asia where there is increasing migration from developing countries as well as newly industrialized countries to developed countries. For example, migrants from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia to the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait), Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia.

In the case of the Middle East, the demand for expatriate labor during the oil crisis of the early 1970s triggered a massive movement of migration in the region. In 1975, Asians in the Gulf were entirely Indians and Pakistanis who numbered 559,000. More than half of them were in the labor force. After ten years, Asian workers in the Gulf exceeded 3.5 million—2.2 million from South Asia and 1.3 million from Southeast Asia. Many more millions are believed to have gone to the Gulf to work for one or two years because the wages there were ten times more than what they could earn at home.⁸

During the Gulf Crisis in 1989, almost two million migrant workers from Kuwait and Iraq, half a million of whom were Asians, were repatriated. However, the aftermath of that political crisis has not reduced but increased the flow of migrant workers from several Asian countries to the Gulf region. Figures show that in 1991, more Indians, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans, Pakistanis, Filipinos and Indonesians went to the Gulf than in 1989, despite

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⁸ Manolo I. Abella, Issues in Contemporary Migration in the Asian Region, a paper he presented to the CCA-URM Workshop on Responding to Migrant Workers' Needs in Asia, Hong Kong, June 20-24,1992, Workshop Report, 42.

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the Kuwaiti government's new policy to reduce dependence on foreign labor. ⁹

Then there is also the flow of migrants from developing countries to the NICS to fill jobs which indigenous peoples would not take up especially in construction and industries because of increased opportunities to improve their economic status. Examples of these are migrants from Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Brunei, Korea and Taiwan.

Since the 1980s, there has been tremendous growth in migration flows to Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Korea. Official records show that in 1980 only about 20,000 workers emigrated from eight major Asian countries to work in one of these countries whereas in 1988 there were 150,000.¹⁰ It is suspected that the figures would be double if clandestine migration was taken into account. In Japan, for example, where wages are sixty times those in China, sixteen times those in Philippines, and eight times those in Malaysia, Japanese authorities estimate that there are now about 300,000 illegal foreign workers.¹¹ Similarly, Hong Kong faced the entry of over a million refugees from mainland China prior to 1980 before revisions of the immigration policy enforced stricter controls. The increase in investments in labor-intensive industries on the mainland created over two million jobs and consequently slowed down the flow considerably.¹²

Among the ASEAN states, Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei are the net importers of labor while Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia are the net suppliers. Singapore has more than 200,000 foreign workers including those from Malaysia who commute daily across the Straits. Malaysia records an official figure of 15,000 only but conservative estimates put the number of clandestine migrant laborers from neighbouring ASEAN countries at 400,000. ¹³

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⁹ Ibid., 43.

¹⁰ Ibid., 44.

¹¹ Ibid., 11.

¹² Ibid., 47.

¹³ Manolo I. Abella, Ibid., 45-46.

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Here again, it is clear that migration has greatly enhanced the pace of economic development in the countries where the supply of labor as well as technical and managerial know-how was limited. However, what the figures do not show (neither do figures for refugees) is the problems clandestine/illegal migrants suffer because of inadequate and/or discriminatory migration policies of the receiving countries, and exploitative employment agencies as well as abusive employers. In the light of these trends, which should not be taken as final, the CCA and related church agencies in the respective sending and receiving countries have a wide mission field.

Migrant Workers' Concerns Carried Out by CCA-URM

The CCA-URM'S concern for migrant issues began in 1984 when the CCA-URM Committee decided to explore possibilities of highlighting the plight of Asian migrant workers. Since then a series of consultations on the subject has been carried out over the years.

1. In December 1984, CCA-URM initiated a pilot consultation held in Hong Kong to study the migrant labor situation in Asia. Participants represented the Mission for Filipino Migrant Workers (MFMW), Indian Committee for Migrants Abroad, Asia-Pacific Mission for Migrant Filipinos (APMMF) and the World Council of Churches (WCC).

2. As a result of the first meating, an inter-regional consultation between CCA and the Middle-East Council of Churches (MECC) was held in Cyprus in 1987 to explore ways in which the two parties could collaborate to help the churches in both regions become aware of the situation of migrant workers and to respond to their pressing spiritual and humanitarian needs.

3. As a follow-up to the Cyprus meeting, the CCA-URM, DAGA, CCA-IA and CCA-Women's Desk held a consultation among organizers of domestic workers in Asia. This was held in November 1987 in Chiangmai, Thailand. It was recommended, and attempts have been made, to organize migrant laborers in India, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Taiwan.

4. Dialogue with the URM in Japan to seek ways to cooperate on the issue of migrant labor in Japan resulted in a meeting held in March 1989 in Japan. The purpose was to establish some

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means of communication and of sharing resources, documentation and training among migrant workers' groups in

Asia.

5. During August 9-15,1990, a Workshop on Labour Migration was held in Hong Kong. The purpose was to identify the issues that cause the export of labor in the sending countries and to define the problems that migrant workers experience in the receiving or host countries. The 11 participants were from Australia/ Hong Kong, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand and comprised of migrant workers, labor union representatives and migrant worker organizers.

Discussions covered the impact that migration has on the workers' families and communities in their native land, and the policies and programs of Asian governments for migrant workers. The phenomenon of labor migration was placed within the context of the current international economic and political system. The problems of migrant workers were identified as follows:

- They suffer many emotional and psychological traumas of separation from families and loved ones. They also experience the cultural upheaval of being uprooted from familiar surroundings with all its life-sustaining and supportive systems and thrown into a foreign and often hostile, but always culturally prejudiced environment.

- They have to cope and contend with corrupt recruiting agents, immigration officers, and law enforcers from both sending and host countries. This is one of the causes of migrant workers becoming debt-ridden.

- Most are subjected to harassment and exploitation by their employers who want to get the most out of them. Some problems that arise are overworking under harsh conditions, physical abuse and sexual harassment (for domestic helpers), inadequate food and poor lodging conditions, being paid less wages and salaries than contracted.

- Governments of sending countries, instead of addressing the fundamental needs of its citizenry for a humane, just and sustainable society, often embark upon economic developmental models which create dependence, social contradictions and disruption to the life of the people. Thus,

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conditions in sending countries create the push factors for labor migration.

- Host countries' acceptance of migrant labor is based on the ruling capitalist's instinct for exploiting cheap labor made cheaper by the very vulnerable state of migrant workers. State machinery is oftentimes used to make migrant workers vulnerable and almost without recourse to any possibility for justice and a dignified human existence.

- Apart from cultural and structural problems, the migrant workers themselves are not organized. This prevents them from seeking possibilities to redress their situation.

In the light of the above, follow-up actions were recommended:

- Networking to develop regional and global linkages and to continue contacts and communication for:

- Urgent appeals for urgent actions; (This presupposes the existence of effective support structures with available personnel, financial resources, power and information ready for solidarity actions.)

- Referrals and follow-up on migrant workers' cases arising;

- Exchange programs for education and training in specific skills;

- Exchange of specific information between sending and host countries through sharing experiences, methods and strategies to help migrant workers.

- Support organizing initiatives among migrant workers themselves.

- Organize a forum to coordinate and explore possible actions that can be taken during the International Labor Organization's (ILO) meeting in Japan in November 1990 to pressure the organization to address issues affecting migrant workers.

- Hold a dialogue between government and non-governmental organizations in every country as well as at the Asian regional level.

- Promote a positive image of migrant workers through poster, UN Year for Migrant Workers, Asia Day for Mi-

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grant Workers, International Day/Week for Migrant Workers; CCA Asia Sunday in 1991 for Migrant Workers; ACPO 20th Anniversary celebrations for migrant workers in 1991.

- Share the report of the workshop with WCC Migrants Desk and the ILO Convention in Japan.

- Organize a fact-finding mission to Taiwan.

6. Consultation on the Mission and Ministry to Filipino Migrant Workers, Hong Kong - April 28 to May 1,1991

The following year, a Consultation on the Mission and Ministry to Filipino Migrant Workers was held in Hong Kong from April 28 to May 1, 1991. This historic ecumenical meeting was sponsored by the Hong Kong Christian Council (HKCC), National Council of Churches in the Philippines (NCCP) and the CCA-URM. This was the first time that Asian Christians of different countries from the region's ecumenical family came together to discuss a common problem that affected people from both countries, in particular migrant workers, and to seek common solutions through a common ministry and mission. The 34 participants represented not only the HKCC, NCCP and CCA-URM but also the MFMW, the Asian Migrant Workers Center (AMWC) and the Hong Kong Christian Industrial Committee (HKCIC), all of which are action groups based in Hong Kong.

The discussions focused on the various problems and suffering experienced in the lives of Filipino workers in Hong Kong. During that time there were 68,750 Filipino migrant workers in Hong Kong out of which only about 10,000 were not employed as domestic helpers. The majority of workers had jobs in the Philippines but chose to migrate because these jobs only offered low wages. The problems identified were similar to the findings of the Workshop on Labour Migration except more focused on migration and employment laws of Hong Kong.

At the end of the Consultation, the NCCP, HKCC and CCA-URM agreed to work on the following five basic areas in which they can cooperate to assist migrant workers on the short and long term:

- immigration policies;

- a bilateral labor relationship between the Philippines and Hong Kong governments;

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- recruitment policies and procedures;

- orientation programs for domestic helpers prior to recruitment, prior to departure from the Philippines and upon arrival in Hong Kong; and,

- pastoral care in Hong Kong.

7. Workshop on Responding to Migrant Workers' Needs in Asia, Hong Kong - June 20 to 24,1992

CCA-URM together with AMWC and Asia Alliance of YMCAS jointly sponsored a Workshop on Responding to Migrant Workers' Needs in Asia. It was held in Hong Kong from June 20 to 24,1992. The 21 participants were from Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan and Hong Kong.

Special emphasis was given to fishworkers, especially Filipinos working on Taiwanese fishing vessels. The Philippines sends abroad 147,000 seafarers per year, more than any other country in the world. Approximately 30,000 fishworkers employed on Taiwanese fishing vessels are from the Philippines. Most of them work with false contracts or documents. A list of problems identified were classified as political-related, information-related, action-related, social welfare-related, education and organizing-related and network-building and solidarity-related. The participants also studied the costs and benefits of labor migration for individuals and for countries. They made the following recommendations to alleviate the problems of migrant workers:

- debt forgiveness, especially for sending countries like the Philippines, whose foreign debt was accumulated during the corrupt government of former President Ferdinand Marcos;

- the restructuring of the economies of the sending countries;

- relief of the internal unemployment problem in the sending countries first;

- solidarity among workers in the sending countries and the active education and organization of people in the labor-exporting countries;

- the transformation of migrant workers' economic power into political power by using their remittances from overseas as leverage for legislation to benefit their needs or as

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a means to implement alternative economic development in the sending countries;

- assistance for the social reintegration of returning migrant workers to their societies;

- existing migrant worker organizations should assist migrants to organize themselves—a process which should also be promoted through cooperation between migrant worker organizations and trade unions in receiving countries; and,

- as a long term response, a network of migrant worker organizations should be formed in Asia. This task will be undertaken by several Hong Kong-based organizations (CCA-URM, AMWC, Asia Alliance of YMCAS, Asian Centre for the Progress of Peoples (ACPP), the Asian Domestic Workers Union (ADWU) and the APMMF).

Among the many concrete actions taken was the formation of a fact-finding mission to Taiwan from December 15 to 20,1992. The team included journalists from the Philippines, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Another was the organization of a task force of fishworkers in the Philippines by the Maritime Education and Resource Center (MERC) and the NCCP-URM. MERC would also prepare a video proposal and a poster. In July 1993, a solidarity meeting with fishworker organizations and support groups, including church groups, would be held in Kaoshiung, Taiwan.

We anticipate that the flow of international migration within and from Asia will only increase in numbers and along with it the intensity of the suffering of migrant workers. With matching intensity, CCA-URM will strive to work together with partner agencies to alleviate the problems of migrant workers in Asia. (1992)