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Australian Aborigines:

European Oppression And Aboriginal Resilience

Rebecca Bishop

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Past and Present

A position paper by the Australian Student Christian Movement.

Australian Aborigines will tell you that they have lived in Australia since the beginning, the Dreamtime. Western archeologists have dated this at 50,000 years or more. They lived and live, in harmony with nature and with each other, in a system, which has evolved over these 50,000 years. Each of the approximately 500 'tribes' had distinctive aspects, especially in the cultural arena, but there are many common themes. One important similarity is that Aborigines regard themselves as part of the "land", (the English word is not very satisfactory in describing the totality of what Aborigines mean). Many of the physical features of the land, which most Westerners regard as lifeless, are the dwelling places of the Ancestral Spirits, who made the earth, the animals and the Aboriginal People. These features are more sacred than the rest of the land. A second important aspect of Aboriginal civilizations is the pattern of human relationships. Aboriginal kinship patterns are among the most complex in the world, and they are based on trust and sharing. Indeed, the Aboriginal "tribe", (or clan, group), does not correspond to tribes as known in North America and elsewhere. There are no chiefs, or centralized decision-making structures, but councils of elders, who possess the law of the people and pass it on. Everyday life is based on sharing the physical necessities, and there is plenty of time for other important activities such as communing with the Ancestral Spirits arid sharing the ways of the group with the children.

The occupation and colonization of Australia by Westerners, (originally Britons), bear some similarities to what happened in the rest of the world but there were important differences. One is that Aboriginal labor was not needed in the early period of colonization, because initially convict labor, and later, labor saving devices, were available for the rural industries. This meant that wholesale

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massacre was possible, through ingenious methods such as putting arsenic in the waterholes on the flour given to aborigines. Secondly, the British government did not recognize the prior occupation of Australia by the Aboriginal people. This fiction could be sustained because Aboriginal tribes did not present a similar organization to peoples encountered in other colonies for negotiation, and because Aborigines did not use the land for farming, or other recognized, "sensible" purposes. Aborigines were pushed further and further out, and enclosed on reserves and missions, on the fiction that the land was not being used and would be "developed" by the Europeans. There were some constraints on the mistreatment of Aborigines where the British law preceded the settlers, but where the reverse occurred, the forces of the Crown had little choice but to accept the frontier law, which had been established. This meant rape, massacre, and countless untold wrongs of Australia. The church can be regarded as a body, which both complemented and yet compensated for the actions of the rest of society. It operated within the framework of the colonial expansionist and the associated superiority attitude, and yet did provide some direct relief for Aborigines. Missionaries were given land, which was not suitable for pastoral or other purposes. In general, their task was to educate Aborigines for entry into white society; this applied especially to so called "part Aborigines" – Attitudes themselves called "part Aborigines" – Aborigines themselves recognize no such distinctions. Attitudes of the missionaries varied; a few respected the existing culture, most regarded Aborigines in the same light as the rest of society, an inferior race destined to die out. Nevertheless, in some situations where massacres occurred, missionaries protected the rest of the tribe from a similar fate.

A damning criticism of the church made by many Aborigines, who are the ones who have experienced its endeavors, is that it deliberately attempted to destroy the culture, families and initiative of the Aboriginal people. The

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Church took the lead in separating children from their parents, in the interest of educating them in "civilized" ways, although some state governments’ latter followed suit. The structures established in Aboriginal communities were paternalistic, and allowed for little participation and responsibility by Aborigines. The Church also split up clans among various missions so that communications and maintenance of the culture became impossible, from the land, which sustained them. There are also numerous instances of groups being forcibly moved, sometimes several times, at the whims of white authorities.

There has been in the last decade a much more widespread movement among Aborigines to take charge of their own affairs. This had its seeds much earlier, but it was first brought to the public's attention with the establishment of the Aboriginal Embassy on the lawn in front of Parliament House, Canberra, in 1972. In urban and country town areas, the movement is reflected in the legal, medical, children's and housing services, which have been set up, run by Aborigines for the use of Aborigines. There are newspapers and magazines giving the Aboriginal point of view, mainly read by Aborigines and their white supporters. The return to traditional lands by small groups in the less colonized areas is a reflection of the same movement. There have been trips to international forums and other countries to state their case. And there are more, though still not many. Aborigines being academically or technically trained, hopefully to assume administrative and policy-making positions in the public service or to work in their communities. Aborigines generally remain at the lowest rungs of the public service, however, and the fact that they are the most competent and qualified people to design programs for themselves are ignored.

The destruction of traditional Aboriginal society has been accompanied by the development of new cultural and societal forms, such as the Aboriginal-controlled services. These are regarded by most Aborigines as being truly

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Aboriginal, but are often not recognized as such by the white community. This impinges on Aborigines in (non-traditional) urban and fringe dwelling situations when they find they cannot get funding for the programs they desire to implement. This is because of either overt racism or ignorance, where the group in question is considered as not aboriginal, or because the low profile of Aboriginal issues in the public consciousness ensures that they have little electoral clout and low priority in funding decisions. Sporadic funding for programs is another problem. Waiting for the yearly decision on funds reinforces the dependency self-image, unless countered by stories to the contrary, as in the case of the Aboriginal-controlled services. Some groups have dealt with this by refusing to accept (Federal Government) Department of Aboriginal Affairs funding, or by requesting unemployment benefits to be paid as block "Community Development Grants". Others have demanded that a fixed percentage of G.N.P. (and therefore of Federal, State and even Local Government budgets), be set aside annually for Aborigines. This funding would then be seen as a right, and could be counted on in the future.

Many white Australians as inferior and incapable of managing their own affairs regard aborigines. This has become less overt in recent times, but it is still present where white management (and government departments) specifies the guidelines within which Aborigines must operate. And it is still openly present in the state of Queensland, where Aborigines living on reserves have their lives rigidly controlled by white manages, under the Aborigines Act and the Torres Strait Islander Act. Aborigines also consider that the bureaucracies in other states are nearly as discriminatory and paternalistic as in Queensland, although this is not enshrined in legislation.

The present situation is still appalling and shocking, in many areas. Infant mortality rates are similar to those found in many third world countries, and are three times the Australian average; leprosy, malnutrition and trachoma, (a

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preventable disease leading to blindness), flourish. These can be removed only with the provision of adequate housing, water, public utilities, and appropriate education. Yet many white Australians are apathetic and uninformed about these conditions, and what should be done about them. The essential element is that Aborigines design services to suit their needs. As mentioned above, they are beginning to deal with these problems, but they need support from the wider community to obtain sufficient funds.

The church's current responses and attitudes vary considerably. Some have taken public stands in support of Aborigines, when governments have been attempting to use force against them, often to permit mining on their reserve or leased land. The Noonkanbah case is the most recent example and it will be further discussed below. Others are becoming more aware of the need to support Aborigines, and to find out first hand about their situation. Still others are much as they have always been, unaware and uncaring, or actively racist. Mission stations also vary; there has been publicity recently about one, which is still extremely paternalistic, which the people have left until the administrator in question is removed. One needs to ask why church authorities are necessary on missions at all; Aboriginal people are perfectly capable of running them themselves in accordance with their own societal values, and hiring any expertise deemed necessary. A recent W.C.C. delegation which visited Australia at the request of the Australian Council of Churches elicited some favorable and some unfavorable responses from churches and church leaders. More important will be to see how churches continue to change their attitudes, with the W.C.C. report as a stimulus.

The challenge facing both those in the church and the larger community is basically to enable and allow Aboriginal people to continue to determine their own future. The first issue facing us is to pressure the Federal Government to give legal, inalienable title to reserves and missions to the

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communities resident on them. In only two states of Australia does any semblance of land rights exist, and there are moves to further weaken the legislation so that mining can occur against the community's wishes. Land rights should be available as Compensation for destruction and dispossession to "urban" Aborigines, to give them a base from which to build their new society. The N.S.W. Select Committee on Aborigines has stated that the achievement of land rights is expected to bring improvements in the areas of health, education, and employment. Aborigines assert that land rights is fundamental but must not be used as a final payment when their situation is so appalling. Existing programs of the various governments are often carried out in a spirit of "doing things for them", which has in the past caused so much damage. The white community needs continual re-education, to allow us to be sensitive and sympathetic to the needs of Aborigines, and to change our oppressive actions.

There have been several episodes in the last few years, which illustrate the oppressive impact of Australian society on Aborigines, to this very day. One is the continued encroachment by (mainly multinational) mining companies on Aboriginal reserves or pastoral leases. The most recent, which received international publicity, was at Noonkanbah in Western Australia. This community had been operating a cattle station successfully for several years, and established other services such as a Community-controlled school, before the Western Australian Government issued permits for oil exploration. The subsequent adverse publicity, which had not been anticipated in the government's attempt to use this as a precedent for further development, did not stop Amax, the company involved, from drilling on the land in close proximity to sacred sites, with the promise of disruption of the community's way of life.

A second development occurring at this time is the proposed repeal of the Aborigines Act 1971-1979 and the Torres Strait Islander Act 1971-1979 by the Queensland

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government. Although these acts contain much that is discriminatory and unsatisfactory, it appears that when the Acts are repealed the reserves of Queensland will be degazetted, and will be resumed as land owned by the government. There are several mining and tourist developments proposed for existing reserves, should this happen and nothing to stop these from continuing to occur in the future.

Thirdly, the Federal Government is following a policy of decentralizing government functions, and handing back authority in Aboriginal Affairs to the state governments. The Aboriginal people see this as unacceptable, and it goes against the mandate given to the Federal Government in a constitutional amendment in 1967, which was passed by an overwhelming majority.

These examples show that despite some small-scale movements at some levels of society toward recognizing the rights of Aborigines, to which land rights is central, the Federal Government and the structures of society are continuing to impede progress. Again it must be emphasized that these receive implicit approval from the majority of white Australians, who do not make their disapproval felt, if it exists as all.

One might say that the A.S.C.M. has played a stimulative, if minor, role in assisting the Aboriginal struggle to date. Many of the most sympathetic and informed people in the church, and some in the government, were once members of ASCM. The impact of these people on the situation, while generally helpful, is miniscule when compared with the enormity of public ignorance. Presently, it is involved in pushing for reforms, along with groups like Action for World Development. It can continue to work in those areas of immediate need, such as the N.S.W. land rights legislation and the Queensland situation. However, I would urge ASCMers to listen to Aborigines, to learn about them and from them, and to consult with them, so that future changes will be those that Aborigines desire.

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Education in the white community is the largest area in which we can make an impact, and it is one of the most important to stop the continued destruction, which is occurring, and to release resources for Aborigines' use.

In the beginning there was the "dreamtime", says the Aboriginal book of Genesis, in which spirits rose miraculously from the earth and sea to bring life, language and laws to the land. So the Aborigines came to occupy Australia, to share the land among tribes and clans and create a complex culture, structured around sacred totems and paintings.

Then only two centuries ago came the first white man.

Since then we have been slowly losing our culture, our tribal territory and our life, until finally we have become outcasts in our own land.

– an Australian Aborigine

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Revised from Praxis Nos. 2-4, 1981.