96

Chapter 7:

GOSPEL AND CULTURE

HUMAN CONTEXT

As has been mentioned, Asia is a vast continent with innumerable religions and cultures. Plurality and poverty, one positive and the other negative, are the essential characteristics of Asia. Plurality of religions and cultures has been threatened in countries like India and Indonesia in recent times. Culture has been confused with nationalism or patriotism, religion and politics. Such a deliberate blurring of distinctions is resulting in majoritarian or even authoritarian views. Certain movies were either not allowed to be made or screened in India because some people considered them either against Hindu, Muslim or Christian culture. Fatwas have been issued against writers like Taslima Nasreen and Salman Rushdie. Painters and artists like M.F. Hussain have been attacked for their paintings or artistic expressions. Over the last ten years in India there is a concerted effort to saffronise or Hinduise the Indian culture in totality, disregarding the long multi-cultural traditions of her people. It is a deliberate affront to the needs and aspirations of the dalits, tribal people and women of India. Thus at the beginning of the third millennium, we are confronted with cultural fascism or culture-policing. There cannot be policing of thought and culture, Talibanisation of Islamic countries and Saffronisation of the Indian culture in the name of Hindutva cannot be conducive towards strengthening and enriching, multicultural societies like India or Indonesia.

Pluralistic culture of Asia has to reckon with plurality of religions in Asia. It is not simply an issue of ‘Gospel and culture’. Fundamentally, it is an issue of defining or redefining both culture and the Gospel in their different and diverse context in Asia. Basically, culture is development, enrichment and improvement of the

97

non-material life. It is the sum total of intellectual, philosophical, ethical and aesthetic achievements of a particular society or community. The primary questions pertain to people’s mental and visual perceptions. Does it result in hardening of the spirit, crippling or stifling their freedom and a sense of justice generally impoverishing the very soul or spirit of a people? In the name of religion or culture, is there a process of regimentation and homogenisation of a particular community? Therefore, it is vitally important that we look at this subject from the point of view of the Bible. Where does it stand and where does it want us to go? The Bible must show us the way even if it is considered ancient, obsolete and outdated for some people. It has its own relevance and significance. Let us try to discern the spirit of truth.

OLD TESTAMENT BACKGROUND

The Old Testament of the Bible speaks about many cultures and their constant interactions. Ancient Palestine was the crossroad and meeting of cultures. As they were nomadic, wandering tribes, they were quite use to meeting people from ‘distant’ lands. They were exposed to different customs, usages, superstitions, religious and ‘secular’ practises. At the outset, it must be noted that in ancient Israel, they could not view life in fragments. They viewed it in its totality or as a whole - religion and culture; secular (physical) and spiritual; individual and societal. Obviously, this was their enormous strength as well as their weakness or limitation.

In their long and tortuous history, the ancient Hebrew people came into direct contact with the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Hittites, the Philistines, Assyrians, Samaritans, Babylonians, Persians and others. In fact to begin with, the Jewish people were not a homogeneous group. They were an amalgamation of twelve tribes of Israel. Such a mingling of different tribal cultures and the impact of so many ancient civilisations resulted in some sort of an osmosis or absorption. This symbiosis of several cultures made the Jewish culture so rich, strong and stable. Its resilience has been proved through the vicissitudes of its history. Plurality has proved its pillar of strength in that demanding, challenging context. I have already mentioned about their Feasting, Fasting and Festivals, about older traditions and my

98

thologies that they had inherited. They made good use of them, amended them and even gave them new meaning. They used them with imagination and innovation. That made them a unique, extraordinary community of people. In the midst of their barrenness, there was colour and variety, diversity and even differences. They rejoiced at their similarities but worked hard at their differences so that they do not divide and split. There were violence and war; murder and assassinations, deception and lies; betrayals and denials but ultimately they affirmed and advocated high idealism and great ideas that we cherish even after thousands of years. I have already mentioned the idea of the Sabbath and the Jubilee both from ecological and justice perspectives. The stories of the first creation and the flood demonstrate their critical and creative use of previous cultural norms and values.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread; the Feast of Weeks; the Feast of Booths²¹⁵ and such others were largely drawn from the practises of Canaan and other Palestinian cultures. Simultaneously, the ancient Israelites rejected outright some other features of the Canaanite culture like nature-worship, Baal-cult, religious prostitution, fertility cults and such others. These examples are given to illustrate the nature and scope of culture in ancient Israel. They never thought of it in a static, passive way. It is considered dynamic, evolving and emerging. This process of absorption or assimilation was not a well thought-out and intellectually stimulated. Rather it was inspired and intuitively derived. A lot of it was God-inspired. As a result they gave birth to the idea of a righteous, moral God.

I have already mentioned that for the ancient Jews, God was mysterious, the transcendent One. God was so holy, that one could not see or even pronounce God’s name. Thus in the beginning God was simply YHWH and only much later the Jewish scholars added the vowels-YAHWEH. This sense of mystery and transcendence is exemplified in the story of the burning bush.²¹⁶ It is stated,

There the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush; he looked, and the bush was blazing, yet it was not consumed . . . God called to him out of the bush...for the place on which you are standing is holy ground.²¹⁷

_____

215 Leviticus 23: 24; Deuteronomy 16:13 and 16; Numbers 28:26; Exodus 34:18 and 22; II Chronicles 8:13; 30:13 and 21

216 Exodus 3: 2-4

217 Exodus 3:2-6

99

Such a mystery did not close them up like a shell but opened them to various possibilities and wonders. In the course of their history they also learnt that God is, not only transcendent, but immanent and active in history and time. Of course at the initial stage, such an activity was confined or limited to their own history. Therefore, there was an evolutionary development in their comprehension of God. They began with their own God in the midst of other gods. They thought of their God as the one and only and began to affirm the universality of God. This transition from polytheism to ethical monotheism was long-drawn and painful. They had to have all kinds of experiences to come to this theological conviction.

Such a universal affirmation made them realise that God is at work in other cultures surrounding them. Thus they mention freely about those cultures (Accadians, Assyrians, Ammonites, Canaanites, Phoenicians etc.). Fundamental to their affirmation of a universal God was that God is one, holy and uniquely moral-ethical. God not only tolerates and accepts diversity and differences but promotes and encourages it. Similarly holiness had to do with the whole of life. Every area of life and living must be infused with holiness. So it was not just ritual purity. Morality and ethics had to do with justice and freedom, love, and responsibility. Consequently, the basic challenge before them was how to move from a culture of slavery and slavish mind-set to a culture of authentic freedom and liberation; from a culture of intolerance and anger to a culture of love and tolerance; from a culture of exploitation and harassment to a culture of justice. This was the cry of the patriarchs and prophets, of the Wisdom and Historical literatures of the Old Testament. Of course in their sinfulness and selfishness, in their pride and arrogance, sometimes they thought of themselves as exclusive and elite, chosen for power and privileges. But God had to remind them again and again that they have to be humble, open to other cultures, learn from them and thereby live accordingly. It was indeed a radical paradigm shift from an exclusive culture to a culture characterised by inclusiveness, openness and freedom.

100

APOSTOLIC WITNESS

We must remember that all the disciples and the ancient apostles were Jewish in origin and culture. Of course some of them, particularly Paul was very much exposed to and influenced by Graeco-Roman culture and philosophy. In the previous chapter, I have already narrated about Paul’s visit to Athens and his theological exposition. From it we become aware of his spirit of accommodation and tolerance of other cultures and religions. He does not reject outright their philosophical framework. On the contrary, we find him probing, wrestling with their ideas and concepts and attempting to appropriate them in his proclamation.

A more interesting episode is connected with the ‘beloved disciple’ and the ‘big fisherman’, Simon Peter. He is one of those direct disciples of Jesus, struggling, confronting openly his opinions and in the process stumbling and making mistakes. The author of the Acts of the Apostles, Luke narrates one of those stories. This was the triple vision of Peter²¹⁸. According to the gospel writers, Peter was with Jesus for at least three years. He must have learnt more than just fishing. He was to be the fisher of all kinds of people, according to the mandate of Jesus himself. ²¹⁹ More important that in the future, he was to be the rock, petros, on which Jesus would build the Church.²²⁰ Peter must have relished those ideas! But he must have also realised that he had a long way to go - a lot of things to learn. This process of learning and unlearning took place in the city of Joppa.²²¹

Peter was an itinerant evangelist, moving about all the time, visiting different groups of people. In one of his journeys, he was staying temporarily with a tanner, a dalit, near the sea in Joppa. He was hungry and in that condition he began to see things in a dream or a trance. Obviously, he was dreaming about food! What else can a hungry person do? Very material - very visible and tangible. Nothing about it is immaterial or abstract. He was not surprised and we should not be surprised. BUT, Peter was not only surprised. He was utterly shocked - experienced repulsion, abhorrence on what he saw! He wanted to throw up. Why, why should the heavens

_____

18 Acts 10

219 Mark 1:17; Matthew 4: 19

220 Matthew 16:18

221 Acts 10:5

101

(God) do this to him? He wanted some good, ‘clean’ food. It is written,

In it (sheet) were all kinds of animals and reptiles and birds of the air. And there came a voice to him, ‘Rise, Peter, kill and eat.’ But Peter said, ‘No, Lord, for I have never eaten anything that is common or unclean.’²²²

The impetuous, headstrong Peter protested against such a proposal. Obviously, Peter was still suffering from an entrenched, engrained prejudice. He did not know how to put together or to ingrate his cultural presuppositions and assumption with the new religion of Jesus. Rapprochement of religion and culture or gospel and culture was one of the biggest problems of the early church. Peter was an ardent disciple of Jesus but he was not willing to give up his Jewish customs, habits and usages. This critical, defining moment was indeed a challenge.

God did not give up but continued to plead. God affirms, “What God has cleansed, you must not call common or profane”. ²²³ It had to happen three times before Peter could be convinced of the divine truth and be genuinely converted to this way of thinking and behaving. Obviously, it was an unforgettable experience, which left an indelible impression for the rest of his life and work. He repeated this story several times in his post-Joppa experience.

From this background of his triple trance, we begin to understand and appreciate his encounter and engagement with Cornelius, a Roman centurion from Caesarea. Most importantly he was a Gentile, a foreigner, to Peter. Peter puts it in his proclamation,

You yourselves know how unlawful it is for a Jew to associate with or to visit any one of another nation; but God has shown me that I should not call any one common or fane . . . Truly I perceive that God shows no partiality, but in every nation any one who fears him and does what is right is acceptable to him. ²²⁴

_____

222 Acts 10: 12-14

223 Acts 10:15

224 Acts 10: 28 and 34-35

102

Thus we are not surprised that Peter repeats this story and the lesson that he learnt from it, in Jerusalem.²²⁵ Such was the impact! Peter was saved from his cultural captivity and was able or empowered to accept and embrace a gentile like Cornelius.

In the last chapter, I had narrated a story from the life of Paul. Thus both Peter and Paul, in their conversion experience were able to transcend and overcome their deep-seated, long-established prejudices and predilections. Consequently, both of them in their advocacy frequently talked about impartiality.²²⁶ So there is sufficient grounding in the apostolic epistles to warrant an affirmation about gospel and culture - gospel must be critical of our own culture before we become critical about other cultures and religions. As usual James put it more sharply and directly when he asserted, “If you show partiality, you commit sin”.²²⁷ Indeed, for him it is fundamentally a theological-ethical problem that usually becomes a socio-economic-political problem in all cultures and religions. We must take this as a cautionary comment.

GOSPEL TRUTH

Jesus was a Jew, well embedded in his culture and long-cherished tradition. I have already discussed about the SABBATH and CIRCUMCISION. In his prophetic, liberating ministry, Jesus was able to rise above and stand apart objectively from his own culture and religion. He was ever busy, questioning and challenging time-honoured, religiously sanctioned cultural and religious practises. Obviously, Jesus got into trouble by not treading the timeworn ways. On the contrary, he was showing a new way of life and living. For this he came into direct confrontation with the religious hierarchy of the time, characterised by patriarchy, absolute authority and consequent elitism. Thus Jesus was thrown out of the synagogue²²⁸, the Jewish religious centre. He decided to preach and teach on the seashore or the riverside. It

_____

225 Acts 11:1

226 Romans 2:9-11; Colossians 3:25; I Tim. 5:21; Eph. 6:9; Gal. 2:6

227 James 2:9

228 Luke 13:14; John 9:22; 12:42

103

was open and free. He needed such an ambience for his revolutionary, radical message. He gave an open invitation to the disinherited, the dispossessed and the exploited. I have already mentioned about his ardent advocacy of justice, freedom and equality for all people. Nothing about his preaching was parochial and presupposed. He broke new grounds and consequently was highly critical of his own religion and culture. Just a glance at some of the Mathean sayings of Jesus will be sufficient to prove the point. He said, that the scribes and the Pharisees do not practise what they preach in the name of Moses²²⁹ and continued,

They tie up heavy burdens, hard to bear, and lay them on the shoulders of others, but they themselves are unwilling to lift a finger to move them. They do all their deeds to be seen by others . . . They love to have the place of honour at banquets and the best seats in the synagogues...scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites, you lock people out of the kingdom of heaven. For you do not go in yourselves, and when others are going in, you stop them . . . For you tithe mint, dill and cumin, and have neglected the weightier matters of the laws: justice, mercy and faith . . . You blind guides, You strain out a gnat but swallow a camel!²³⁰

Some scholars think that this is too harsh and Jesus could not have said such things. Even if they are not the exact words of Jesus but they certainly reflect his spirit and energy. In fact Jesus had not finished with the scribes and Pharisees, who thought of themselves as the custodian and promoter of ancient wisdom and religiosity. Jesus went on to call these religious and ‘secular’ leaders in the Jewish community of his time, as ‘whitewashed tombs’²³¹ and a ‘cup’ that is clean outside but inside is filthy, ‘full of greed and self-indulgence’.²³² That Mathean chapter concludes with Jesus’ lamentation,

Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to it! How often have I desired to gather your children together as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you were not willing.²³³

_____

229 Matthew 23:3

230 Matthew 23:4-24

231 Matthew 23: 29

232 Matthew 23:25

233 Matthew 23:37

104

In this lamentation, there is agony and love for the people. He was deeply sorry for their selfishness and stubbornness about their false religiosity. Jesus was aware that demonic powers were at work in long-established, institutionalised or well-organised religions and cultures. Therefore there is a constant need for criticism and vigilance. There is a need even to exorcise ‘the evil spirit’ or the demonic powers. ²³⁴

For Jesus, the kingdom of God is supreme and absolute. Everything else including religion and culture have to be subjected to its scrutiny. He had inherited a great religion of the prophets and religious poets, of seers and sages. But it was subverted and sabotaged by vested interests and power-hungry people. Egyptian slavery and exodus, Babylonian captivity and restoration seemed to have lost their impact and implications. Jewish culture and religion seemed to have lost their sting. It was a culture characterised by domination of the few and the domestication of many, by a culture of submission and sycophancy. Thus Pharisaic religiosity reinforced and strengthened Roman rule or colonialism. The Jewish people were victims of colonised culture and this culture was well supported and sustained by religious hierarchy and authoritarianism. Into such a context Jesus came and declared, “The kingdom of God is near, repent and believe” in the gospel of justice and freedom. Precisely for this reason, there was some misunderstanding of the mission and ministry of Jesus. Some of the people understood him not only as the religious leader and advocate but thought of him as a ‘secular” political leader who would liberate them directly and openly from Roman subjugation. Thus it is important to remember that Jesus came primarily to preach, practise and promote the kingdom of God, characterised by freedom and justice, love and equality. Jesus had propagated,

Truly I tell you, in no one in Israel have I found such faith. I tell you, many will come from east and west and will eat with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, while the heirs of the kingdom will be thrown into the outer darkness...²³⁵

_____

234 Matthew 9:32-34; 17:18; 8:28-34; Luke 9:42-43; 8:2; Mark 7:26

235 Matthew 8:11-12

105

This he had said, in response to the powerful transformative words of the centurion, foreign Roman and a gentile. Jesus was touched by his pledge of loyalty and devotion. It is evidently clear that Jesus had established his own criteria to distinguish between a good religion and a bad one, a good culture as against a bad one. That which was loving, life giving and liberating is a good culture and religion. That which was unloving, anti-poor, death-dealing and domesticating is a bad one. From this point of view religion must correct culture and the latter must rectify the former. Such is the mutual ministry of correction and liberation according to Jesus. Nothing was so sacrosanct, whether religion or culture, that it cannot be reformed or redeemed. So he had said, “The Sabbath is made for human beings, human beings are not made for the Sabbath.”

Doctrines and dogmas are formulated to clarify and understand the divine dimension. But in the process if they confuse and create conflicts they have to be questioned and if necessary changed. So also culture that must promote and enhance sense and sensibilities and establish a civil society, develop a cultural space for all kinds of human activities. Thus in ancient Israel, along with wisdom there was music and poetry that were for the uplift of the human spirit. Jesus did not limit or restrict human freedom. He was for the easy, free movement of the human spirit by the guidance of the divine spirit.

THEOLOGICAL-ETHICAL AFFIRMATION

God in Jesus promoted and practised prophetic dynamism to understand religion and culture. Both religion and culture must be free to evolve. According to the Bible, religion must promote a passion for righteousness and justice in the name of God. A culture also must promote such a passion through its multifarious activities - dance, drama, song, music, art, architecture and such others. Both religion and culture must eliminate or minimise deceit, fanaticism, fatalism and superstition. The Bible on the whole is for peace understood in terms of shalom or abundant life.

106

In Asia in particular, both culture and religion must be for the poor and the needy, for the underprivileged and the undernourished. They cannot be neutral or indifferent. We have the cultural and religious resources to do this. Asia is very rich in religion and culture and we must use them critically and creatively to eliminate the socio-economic-political problems we are facing today. We have no reason to be disillusioned or frustrated. God of the Bible is a God of the past, present and the future; God of the Jews and Gentiles, God of the Christians and of those belonging to other religions or no religion. In the past, due to colonial expansion and missionary extension, invariably, both religion and culture came to be completely identified with Christianity and the West. In the process, Asians and others lost their own religious-cultural identity and involvement. We had forgotten or even ignored our own religious-cultural history and heritage. The legacy of the past lingers on as a burden! We have become religious-cultural clones of Western ‘Christianity’. God of the Bible summons us to authenticity and honesty about our religious-cultural life. It is for us to enrich our double heritage, understand their interactions and work for their integration. God, the father and God, the Mother, God, the son and daughter and God, the Holy Spirit is a plurality in unity. Consequently, we are in a unique position to promote plurality of Asian religions and cultures and thus affirming our deep-seated, well-grounded unity.

QUESTIONS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION

What is the nature and content of the gospel that is actually practised in your Church and society? How much of it is of Western origin and how much of it is of indigenous cultural forms? Identify or isolate them.

What are the unique characteristics of the church in your community? How does it relate to the neighbouring cultures and religions?

What are the cultural aspects that could be incorporated in your church liturgy and practise?

107

FIELD STUDY

Make an empirical study of your church festivals like Christmas, Easter, Harvest and Thanksgiving, in terms of days, decorations, music, food, worship service, drama etc. Examine and evaluate the data carefully and see what concrete steps you can take to make the church festivals more indigenous and contextual.

QUOTATIONS FOR PERSONAL AND GROUP REFLECTION

Marriage of religion and culture is equally fatal to either partner, since religion is so tied to the social order that it loses its spiritual character and the bonds of religious tradition restrict the free development of culture until the social organism becomes rigid and lifeless as a mummy.

The Church judges culture; including the Church’s own forms of life. For its forms are created by culture, as its religious substance makes culture possible. The church and culture are within, not alongside, each other. And the kingdom of God includes both while transcending both.

The relationship of gospel and culture has been a contested and offending subject. All too often, whenever there was no absolutely clear line drawn against everything ‘heathen’, the accusation of syncretism was made from a European standpoint, without sufficient awareness of the corresponding Western stamp and bias. We have now learnt to acknowledge authentic contextual forms of expressing faith in art and liturgy. Indeed, inculturation has almost become a part of political correctness. We cannot sell the gospel like a commodity by ingratiating ourselves. Each culture incarnates the gospel, fills it with life, with language, images, symbols, rituals. At the same time the gospel illuminates every culture, it is not simply absorbed, but throws a critical light on it, crosses over boundaries and opens new horizons. The gospel must maintain its challenging strangeness. The secret of the

108

incarnation cannot be claimed by any culture that excludes minorities in the name of its own purity and greatness and feels superior to other cultures. The strangeness of the gospel must not lead to a secluded life but to a courageous public witness.

REFERENCES

‘Dimensions of the Asian Captivity’ in To Set at Liberty Those Who Are Oppressed, CCA Eighth Assembly, 1985.

‘Human Rights in Asia: Issues of Ethnicity, Culture and Identity’, in Transcending Boundaries: Faith, Social Action and Solidarity, Mumbai, India, pp. 293-315, 1995.

‘Prophetic Critique of Society’ in Re-Living our Faith Today: A Bible Study Resource Book, WSCF, Asia-Pacific Region, Hong Kong, 1992.

Dawson, Christopher, Religion and Culture, 1947.

Niebuhr, H. Richard, Christ and Culture, 1951.

See Transcending Boundaries For a True Ecumenism, Raipur Churches Development and Relief Committee, 1998.

Tillich, Paul, Theology of Culture, 1964.